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, the Shahadah, used by Muslims' Army during early Islam. Jihad ( ), meaning "to strive" or "to struggle", in Arabic language, is an List of Islamic terms in Arabic and a duty for Muslims. It appears frequently in the Quran and common usage as the idiomatic expression "striving in the way of God (al-jihad fi sabil Allah)"., Jihad, p.571 , Jihad, p.419

A minority among the Sunni Islam sometimes refer to this Islamic duty as the sixth Five Pillars of Islam, though it occupies no such official status.John Esposito(2005), Islam: The Straight Path, pp.93 In Twelver Shi'a Islam, however, Jihad is one of the 10 Practices of the Religion.

Jihad requires Muslims to "struggle in the way of God" or "to struggle to improve one's self and/or society."Esposito (2003), p.93 pg 174-176 Jihad is directed against the devil's inducements, aspects of one's own self, or against a visible enemy. pg. 17 The four major categories of jihad that are recognized are Jihad against one's own self (self-perfection), Jihad of the tongue, Jihad of the hand, and Jihad of the sword.

Usage of the term The term Jihad used without any qualifiers is generally understood to be referring to war on behalf of Islam. Within fiqh Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible under Sharia, and may be declared against apostates, rebels, highway robbers, violent groups, unIslamic leaders or military exertion against non-Muslim combatants but there are other ways to perform jihad as well including civil disobedience.R. Peters (1977), pp.3-5 In broader usage and interpretation, the term has accrued both violent and non-violent meanings. It can imply striving to live a moral and virtuous life, spreading and defending Islam as well as fighting injustice and oppression, among other things.Esposito (2002a), p.26 In the languages of non-Islamic cultures, the term is usually used to refer to Muslim 'Holy War' or any violent strife invoking Allah.

The primary aim of jihad is not always the conversion of non-Muslims to Islam by force, but rather the expansion and defense of the Islamic state. Thereafter, non-Muslims within the Islamic state would enouraged to convert pursuant to Sharia Law and the Dhimmi system. In the classical manuals of Islamic jurisprudence, the Rules of war in Islam are covered at great length. Such rules include not killing women, children and non-combatants, as well as not damaging cultivated or residential areas. More recently, modern Muslims have tried to re-interpret the Islamic sources, stressing that Jihad is essentially defensive warfare aimed at protecting Muslims and Islam. Although Opinion of Islamic scholars on Jihad, there is consensus amongst them that the concept of jihad will always include armed struggle against persecution and oppression. -->Some Muslims believe that the Prophet Muhammad regarded the inner struggle for faith a greater Jihad than even fighting force in the way of God.

Jihad has also been applied to offensive, aggressive warfare, as exemplified by early movements like the Kharijites and the contemporary Egyptian Islamic Jihad organization (which assassinated Anwar Al Sadat) as well as Jihad organizations in Lebanon, the Gulf states, and Indonesia. When used to describe warfare between Islamic groups or individuals, such as Al-Qaeda's attacks on civilians in Iraq, perpetrators of violence often cite collaboration with non-Islamic powers as a justification.{{cite web]|publisher=Human Rights Watch points out that some modern Muslims sources try to portray jihad in a spiritual and moral sense when addressing non-Muslims. Muslims tell people that they shouldn't try to define jihad by the actions of extremists, but at the balanced Muslims. For most of the fourteen centuries of recorded [Muslim history, jihad was most commonly interpreted to mean armed struggle for the defense or advancement of Muslim power. In Muslim tradition, the world is divided into two houses: the House of Islamic Peace (Dar al-Salam), in which Muslim governments rule and Muslim law prevails, and the House of War (Dar al-Harb), the rest of the world, still inhabited and, more important, ruled by infidels. The presumption is that that by natural law these domains will compete and fighting is inevitable therefore the duty of jihad will continue, interrupted only by truces, until all the world either adopts the Muslim faith or submits to Muslim rule. Those who fight in the jihad qualify for rewards in both worlds—booty in this one, paradise in the next. For most of the recorded history of Islam, from the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad onward, the word jihad was used in a primarily military sense. The Crisis of Islam, Bernard Lewis 2001 Chapter 2

The word itself is recorded in English since 1869, in the Muslim sense, and has been used for any doctrinal crusade since c. 1880.

In Literary Arabic, jihad is one of the correct terms for a struggle for any cause, violent or not, religious or secular (though كفاح kifāḥ is also used). For instance, Mahatma Gandhi's struggle for Indian independence is called a "jihad" in Modern Standard Arabic (as well as many other dialects of Arabic) even though it was neither an Islamic struggle nor conducted violently; the same terminology is applied to the fight for feminism.

When Muslim populations are attacked on the basis of religion, Jihad becomes mandatory on the government of that particular state (and all Muslims) until all hostile forces are either eliminated or negotiated out of the occupied land.If the threat continues to persist, the Islamic State may have to eliminate the threat through force.

Classifications of Jihad by Muslims Sunni view of Jihad Jihad has been classified either as al-jihād al-akbar (the greater jihad), the struggle against one's soul (nafs), or al-jihād al-asghar (the lesser jihad), the external, physical effort, often implying fighting.

Gibril Haddad has analyzed the basis for the belief that internal jihad is the "greater jihad", Jihad al-akbar. Haddad identifies the primary historical basis for this belief in a pair of similarly worded hadith, in which Muhammed is reported to have told warriors returning home that they had returned from the lesser jihad of struggle against non-Muslims to a greater jihad of struggle against lust. Although Haddad notes that the authenticity of both hadeeth is questionable, he nevertheless concludes that the underlying principle of superiority internal jihad does have a reliable basis in the Qur'an and other writings.]

On the other hand, the Hanbali scholar Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya did believe that "internal Jihad" is importanthttp://www.abc.se/~m9783/n/dgjh_e.html but he suggests those hadith as weak which consider "Jihad of the heart/soul" to be more important than "Jihad by the sword". Jihad in the Hadith, Peace with Realism, April 16, 2006

Muslim scholars explained there are five kinds of jihad fi sabilillah (struggle in the cause of God):{{cite web | title = Jihad | work = [Encarta | publisher = [Microsoft | date = 2006 | url = http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761582255/Jihad.html | format = HTML | accessdate = 2006-08-16 -->



Some contemporary Islamists have succeeded in replacing the greater jihad, the fight against desires, with the lesser jihad, the holy war to establish, defend and extend the Islamic state. Understanding Jihad, February, 2005

Shi'a view of Jihad Shi'a Islam classify Jihad into two; the Greater Jihad and the Lesser Jihad.http://www.al-islam.org/al-serat/jihad-nasr.htm The Lesser Jihad refers to defending oneself, one's family and community against oppression and tyranny, upon which there are strict regulations.http://www.al-shia.com/html/eng/books/jihad/3.htm The Greater Jihad refers to the struggle inside oneself to obey God (Arabic: Allah) and reject sin.http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/greater_jihad.htm The Greater Jihad, or the struggle to follow God (Allah) and reject sin, is one of the Twelver (Arabic: Ithna 'Ashariyya) Shia Practices of the Religion.

Sufic view of Jihad The Sufic view classifies "Jihad" into two; the "Greater Jihad" and the "Lesser Jihad". It is Muhammad who put the emphasis on the "greater Jihad" by saying that "Holy is the warrior who wrestles ("struggles") with himself". Here Muhammad was inferring Jacob's "wrestling" with the angel by which he gained the name "Israel". In this sense external wars and strife are seen but a satanic counterfeit of the true "jihad" which can only be fought and won within; no other Salvation existing can save man without the efforts of the man himself being added to the work involved of self-refinement. In this sense it is the western view of the Holy Grail which comes closest to the Sufic ideal; for to the Sufis Perfection is the Grail; and the Holy Grail is for those who after they become perfect by giving all they have to the poor then go on to become "Abdal" or "changed ones" like Enoch who was "taken" by God because he "walked with God". (Genesis:5:24) here the "Holy Ones" gain the surname "Hadrat" or "The Presence".

==Jihad as warfare==The Qur’an asserts that if the use of force would not have been allowed in curbing the evils by nations, the disruption and disorder caused by insurgent nations could have reached the extent that the places of worship would have become deserted and forsaken. As it states:] divides just warfare into two types:
  • Against injustice and oppression
  • Against the rejecters of truth after it has become evident to them


    • The first type of Jihad is generally considered eternal, but Ghamidi holds that the second is specific to people who were selected by God for delivering the truth as an obligation. They are called witnesses of the truth (Arabic:, see also Itmam al-hujjah); the implication being that they bear witness to the truth before other people in such a complete and ultimate manner that no one is left with an excuse to deny the truth. There is a dispute among Islamic jurists as to whether the act of being "witness" was only for the Sahaba of Muhammad or whether this responsibility is still being held by modern Muslims, which may entitle them to take actions to subdue other Non-Muslim nations. Proponents of Sahaba of Muhammad as being "the witness" translate the following verse only for the Sahaba while others translate it for the whole Ummah.Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, The Meaning of the Qur'an (tafsir), commentary on verse 2:143. As in Qur'an:] of Muhammad as being "the witness" present following verse to argue that Sahaba of Muhammad were chosen people as witnesses just as God chooses Messengers from mankind. As in Qur'an:||-->

    Following is the first verse of the Qur’an in which the Sahaba of Muhammad, who had migrated from Mecca were given permission to fight back if they were attacked:] instead of Mecca considered by most Muslim scholars is that without political authority armed offensives become tantamount to spreading disorder and anarchy in the society. As one of Islamic jurist writes:

    Directive of warfare The directive of the Jihad given to Muslims in Qur'an is:

    These verses told Muslims that they should not merely fight the Banu Quraish if they resist them in offering Hajj, but the Qur’an goes on to say that they should continue to fight the Banu Quraish until the persecution perpetrated by them is uprooted and Islam prevails in the whole of Arabia. Initially Muslims were required to fulfill this responsibility even if the enemy was ten times their might. Afterwards, the Qur'an reduced the burden of this responsibility. As in Qur'an:]. Tafhim al-Qur'an. Verse 8:66

    A policy was adopted regarding the extent of requirement that arose in wars that the Muslims had to fight. In the battles of Badr, Uhud and Tabuk, the responsibility was much more and each Muslim was required to present his services as a combatant. As in Qur'an:], Tadabbur-i-Qur'an, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Lahore: Faran Foundation, 1986), pp. 450-1 As in Qur'an:||-->

    The driving force Islamic scholars agree that Jihad should not be undertaken to gratify one’s whims nor to obtain wealth and riches. Many also consider that it must also not be undertaken to conquer territories and rule them or to acquire fame or to appease the emotions of communal support, partisanship and animosity. On the contrary, it should be undertaken only and only for the cause of Allah as is evident from the words. As in Qur'an:||-->Prophet Muhammad, at various instances, also explained very forcefully this purport of the Qur’an:

    Similarly as a reward for participation in such a strive, the Qur'an states:||-->

    Ethical limits Sharia, based upon the Quran and practices of Muhammad has set down a set of laws to be observed during the lesser Jihad.

    Qur'an forbids fighting in sacred month and similarly within the boundaries of Haram. But if non-Muslims disregard these sanctities, Muslims are asked to retaliate in equal measure.Amin Ahsan Islahi, Tadabbur-i-Qur'an, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Lahore: Faran Foundation, 1986), pp. 479-80 It is stated in Qur'an:], and they couldn't migrate to Medina, the Qur'an stated:||-->

    Similar reports are attributed to Muhammad:

    Objectives of warfare According to verses , the Qur'an implies two objectives:
  • Uproot fitnah () or persecution
  • Establish supremacy of Islam in the world


    • Against persecution Directives for action against persecution and unbelief:|-->

    Also:||-->

    Most Muslim scholars consider it an eternal directive and believe that all types of oppression should be considered under this directive.Concept of Dar Al-Islam and Dar Al-Harb, Islamonline.net. Similarly, if a group of Muslims commit unwarranted aggression against some of their brothers and does not desist from it even after all attempts of reconciliation, such a group according to the Qur’an should be fought with:||-->

    If Muslims do not have a state, then in such a situation, Muhammad while answering a question raised by one of his followers, directed Muslims to dissociate themselves from such anarchy and disorder: I asked: If there is no state or ruler of the Muslims? He replied: In this situation, dissociate yourself from all groups, even if you have to chew the roots of a tree at the time of your death. Sahih Bukhari 7084

    Supremacy of Islam in the Arabian peninsula It is stated in Qur'an:||-->

    After Itmam al-hujjah (clarification of religion to the addressees in its ultimate form), Jews were the ones who were subdued first. They had been granted amnesty because of various pacts. Those among them who violated these pacts were given the punishment of denying a Messenger of God. Muhammad exiled the tribe of Banu Qaynuqa to Khyber and that of Banu Nadir to Syria.Ibn Hisham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru’l-Khayr, 1995), pp. 40-2 / Ibid. vol. 3, pp. 151-160 The power they wielded at Khyber was crushed by an attack at their strongholds.Ibid., pp. 40-2 / Ibid., pp. 151-160 Prior to this, Abu al-Rafi ibn Abu al-Huqayq and Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf were put to death in their houses.Ibid., pp. 43-8 / Ibn Sa‘ad, al-Tabaqatu’l-Kubra, vol. 2, (Beirut: Dar Sadir, 1960), p. 28 The tribe of Banu Qurayza was guilty of treachery and disloyalty in the battle of the Ahzab.Ibn Hisham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru’l-Khayr, 1995), pp. 180-2 When the clouds of war dispersed and the chances of an external attack no longer remained, Muhammad laid siege around them. When no hope remained, they asked Muhammad to appoint Sa'd ibn Mua'dh as an arbitrator to decide their fate. Their request was accepted. Since, at that time, no specific punishment had been revealed in the Qur’an about the fate of the Jews, Sa'd ibn Mua'dh announced his verdict in accordance with the Torah. As per the Torah, the punishment in such situations was that all men should be put to death; the women and children should be made slaves and the wealth of the whole nation should be distributed among the conquerors.Deuteronomy, 20:10-14Caesar E. Farah. Islam: Beliefs and Observances, pp.52 In accordance with this verdict pronounced, all men were executed.Ibn Hisham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru’l-Khayr, 1995), pp. 188-9 John Esposito writes that Muhammad's use of warfare in general was alien neither to Arab custom nor to that of the Hebrew prophets, as both believed that God had sanctioned battle with the enemies of the Lord.John Esposito(2005), Islam: The Straight Path, p.15

    No other incident of note took place regarding the Jews until the revelation of At-Tawba, the final judgement, was declared against them:], 2730Abu Yusuf, Kitab al-kharaj, Fasl fi’l-Fay wa al-Khiraj, (1302 AH), p. 42Ahmad Ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri, Futuhu’l-Buldan, (Qumm: Manshurat al-Arummiyyah, 1404 AH), p. 73Ibn Athir, Al-Kamil fi’l-Tarikh, 1st ed., vol. 2, (Beirut: Dar Beirut, 1965), p. 112 Consequently, the Jews of Khyber and the Christians of Najran were exiled once and for all from the Arabian peninsula by Umar. This exile actually fulfilled the following declaration of the Qur’an about them:] that in future no pact would be made with them. They would be given a final respite of four months and then they would be humiliated in retribution of their deeds and would in no way be able to escape from this punishment. After this time limit, the declaration is made in the Qur’an:||-->

    After the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, Muhammad himself singled out nations by writing letters to them. In all, they were written to the heads of eight countries.The names of these heads of state are: 1. Negus of Abyssinia, 2. Maqawqas of Egypt, 3. Khusro Parvez of Persia, 4. Qaysar of Rome, 5. Mundhar Ibn Sawi of Bahrain, 6. Hudhah Ibn ‘Ali of Yamamah, 7. Harith Ibn Abi Shamr of Damascus, 8. Jayfar of Amman, see Muhammad as a diplomat Consequently, after consolidating their rule in the Arabian peninsula, the Sahaba launched attacks against these countries giving them two options if they wanted to remain alive: to accept Islam or to accept a life of dhimmi by paying Jizya. None of these nations were considered to be adherents to polytheism, otherwise they would have been treated in the same way as the Idolaters of Arabia..

    Warfare in Muslim societies History records instances of the "call for jihad" being invoked by Islamic leaders to 'legitimate' wars of conquest. The major imperial Muslim dynasties of Ottoman Turkey (Sunni) and Persia (Shia) each established systems of authority around traditional Islamic institutions. Part of this incorporation involved various interpretations of jihad. For example, in the Ottoman empire the concept of ghaza was promulgated as a sister obligation to jihad. The Ottoman ruler Mehmed II is said to have insisted on the conquest of Constantinople (Christian Byzantium) by justifying ghaza as a basic duty. Later Ottoman rulers would apply ghaza to justify military campaigns against the Persian Safavid dynasty. Thus both rival empires established a tradition that a ruler was only considered truly in charge when his armies has been sent into the field in the name of the true faith, usually against giaurs or heretics -often meaning each other-, often invoking some Sufi or other theological dispute, but rather driven by the universal craving for power, prestige, and if possible booty or territory.. The 'missionary' vocation of the Muslim dynasties was prestigious enough to be officially reflected in a formal title as part of a full ruler style- the Ottoman (many also had Ghazi as part of their name) Sultan Murad Khan II Khoja-Ghazi, 6th Sovereign of the House of Osman (1421 - 1451), literally used Sultan ul-Mujahidin.

    The so-called Fulbe jihad states and a few other jihad states in western Africa were established by a series of offensive wars.

    The commands inculcated in the Quran (in five suras from the period after Muhammad had established his power) on Muslims to put to the sword those who will neither embrace Islam nor pay a poll-tax (Jizya) were not interpreted as a general injunction on all Muslims constantly to make war on the infidels (originally only polytheists who claimed to be monotheists, not "People of the Book", Jesus is seen as the last of the precursors of the Prophet Muhammed; the word infidel had different historical uses, notably used by the Crusaders to refer to the Muslims they were fighting against). It was generally supposed that the order for a general war can only be given by the Caliph (an office that was claimed by the Ottoman sultans), but Muslims who did not acknowledge the spiritual authority of the Caliphate (which is vacant), such as non-Sunnis and non-Ottoman Muslim states, always looked to their own rulers for the proclamation of a jihad; there has been in fact no universal warfare by Muslims on non-believers since the early caliphate. Some proclaimed Jihad by claiming themselves as mahdi, e.g. the Sudanese Mahommed Ahmad in 1882.

    Non-Muslim opinions Barbary Pirates The Barbary Pirates is what Europe and the United States called the 18th century JihadAndrew C. Hess. The Evolution of the Ottoman Seaborne Empire in the Age of the Oceanic Discoveries, 1453-1525. The American Historical Review, Vol. 75, No. 7 (Dec., 1970), pp. 1892-1919 H. W. Crocker III, Lepanto, 1571: The Battle That Saved Europe. Crisis Magazine. http://www.crisismagazine.com/december2006/croker.htmby Ottoman corsairs, an Islamic group that attacked as far north in Europe as Iceland.

    Modern Views The United States United States Department of Justice has used its own ad hoc definitions of jihad in indictments of individuals involved in terrorist activities:

    Karen Armstrong in her book Muhammad: a Biography of the Prophet (book), writes:

    "Fighting and warfare might sometimes be necessary, but it was only a minor part of the whole jihad or struggle."{{cite web |url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/isl_jihad.htm |title= The Concept of Jihad "Struggle" in Islam |accessmonthday= August 16 |accessyear=2006 |author= B.A. Robinson |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= 2003-03-28 |format= HTML |publisher= Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance |archiveurl= |archivedate=-->

    The Orientalist, Maxime Rodinson, wrote that "Jihad is a propagandistic device which, as need be, resorts to armed struggle – two ingredients common to many ideological movements." (Maxime Rodinson. Muhammad. Random House, Inc., New York, 2002. p. 351.)

    The neologism jihadist is sometimes used to describe militant Islamic groups, including but not restricted to Jihadist terrorism. The term is deemed offensive by many Muslims who see it as vilifying the more complex ideology of jihad.

    References See also

    Political and military aspects

    Similar concepts in other religions and in secularism

    Philosophers of Jihad doctrine

    Further reading

    Sources and external links Encyclopedic and various non-specialized sites

    Islamic sites discussing Jihad

    Non Islamic sites discussing Jihad

    , the Shahadah, used by Muslims' Army during early Islam. Jihad ( ), meaning "to strive" or "to struggle", in Arabic language, is an List of Islamic terms in Arabic and a duty for Muslims. It appears frequently in the Quran and common usage as the idiomatic expression "striving in the way of God (al-jihad fi sabil Allah)"., Jihad, p.571 , Jihad, p.419

    A minority among the Sunni Islam sometimes refer to this Islamic duty as the sixth Five Pillars of Islam, though it occupies no such official status.John Esposito(2005), Islam: The Straight Path, pp.93 In Twelver Shi'a Islam, however, Jihad is one of the 10 Practices of the Religion.

    Jihad requires Muslims to "struggle in the way of God" or "to struggle to improve one's self and/or society."Esposito (2003), p.93 pg 174-176 Jihad is directed against the devil's inducements, aspects of one's own self, or against a visible enemy. pg. 17 The four major categories of jihad that are recognized are Jihad against one's own self (self-perfection), Jihad of the tongue, Jihad of the hand, and Jihad of the sword.

    Usage of the term The term Jihad used without any qualifiers is generally understood to be referring to war on behalf of Islam. Within fiqh Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible under Sharia, and may be declared against apostates, rebels, highway robbers, violent groups, unIslamic leaders or military exertion against non-Muslim combatants but there are other ways to perform jihad as well including civil disobedience.R. Peters (1977), pp.3-5 In broader usage and interpretation, the term has accrued both violent and non-violent meanings. It can imply striving to live a moral and virtuous life, spreading and defending Islam as well as fighting injustice and oppression, among other things.Esposito (2002a), p.26 In the languages of non-Islamic cultures, the term is usually used to refer to Muslim 'Holy War' or any violent strife invoking Allah.

    The primary aim of jihad is not always the conversion of non-Muslims to Islam by force, but rather the expansion and defense of the Islamic state. Thereafter, non-Muslims within the Islamic state would enouraged to convert pursuant to Sharia Law and the Dhimmi system. In the classical manuals of Islamic jurisprudence, the Rules of war in Islam are covered at great length. Such rules include not killing women, children and non-combatants, as well as not damaging cultivated or residential areas. More recently, modern Muslims have tried to re-interpret the Islamic sources, stressing that Jihad is essentially defensive warfare aimed at protecting Muslims and Islam. Although Opinion of Islamic scholars on Jihad, there is consensus amongst them that the concept of jihad will always include armed struggle against persecution and oppression. -->Some Muslims believe that the Prophet Muhammad regarded the inner struggle for faith a greater Jihad than even fighting force in the way of God.

    Jihad has also been applied to offensive, aggressive warfare, as exemplified by early movements like the Kharijites and the contemporary Egyptian Islamic Jihad organization (which assassinated Anwar Al Sadat) as well as Jihad organizations in Lebanon, the Gulf states, and Indonesia. When used to describe warfare between Islamic groups or individuals, such as Al-Qaeda's attacks on civilians in Iraq, perpetrators of violence often cite collaboration with non-Islamic powers as a justification.{{cite web]|publisher=Human Rights Watch points out that some modern Muslims sources try to portray jihad in a spiritual and moral sense when addressing non-Muslims. Muslims tell people that they shouldn't try to define jihad by the actions of extremists, but at the balanced Muslims. For most of the fourteen centuries of recorded [Muslim history, jihad was most commonly interpreted to mean armed struggle for the defense or advancement of Muslim power. In Muslim tradition, the world is divided into two houses: the House of Islamic Peace (Dar al-Salam), in which Muslim governments rule and Muslim law prevails, and the House of War (Dar al-Harb), the rest of the world, still inhabited and, more important, ruled by infidels. The presumption is that that by natural law these domains will compete and fighting is inevitable therefore the duty of jihad will continue, interrupted only by truces, until all the world either adopts the Muslim faith or submits to Muslim rule. Those who fight in the jihad qualify for rewards in both worlds—booty in this one, paradise in the next. For most of the recorded history of Islam, from the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad onward, the word jihad was used in a primarily military sense. The Crisis of Islam, Bernard Lewis 2001 Chapter 2

    The word itself is recorded in English since 1869, in the Muslim sense, and has been used for any doctrinal crusade since c. 1880.

    In Literary Arabic, jihad is one of the correct terms for a struggle for any cause, violent or not, religious or secular (though كفاح kifāḥ is also used). For instance, Mahatma Gandhi's struggle for Indian independence is called a "jihad" in Modern Standard Arabic (as well as many other dialects of Arabic) even though it was neither an Islamic struggle nor conducted violently; the same terminology is applied to the fight for feminism.

    When Muslim populations are attacked on the basis of religion, Jihad becomes mandatory on the government of that particular state (and all Muslims) until all hostile forces are either eliminated or negotiated out of the occupied land.If the threat continues to persist, the Islamic State may have to eliminate the threat through force.

    Classifications of Jihad by Muslims Sunni view of Jihad Jihad has been classified either as al-jihād al-akbar (the greater jihad), the struggle against one's soul (nafs), or al-jihād al-asghar (the lesser jihad), the external, physical effort, often implying fighting.

    Gibril Haddad has analyzed the basis for the belief that internal jihad is the "greater jihad", Jihad al-akbar. Haddad identifies the primary historical basis for this belief in a pair of similarly worded hadith, in which Muhammed is reported to have told warriors returning home that they had returned from the lesser jihad of struggle against non-Muslims to a greater jihad of struggle against lust. Although Haddad notes that the authenticity of both hadeeth is questionable, he nevertheless concludes that the underlying principle of superiority internal jihad does have a reliable basis in the Qur'an and other writings.]

    On the other hand, the Hanbali scholar Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya did believe that "internal Jihad" is importanthttp://www.abc.se/~m9783/n/dgjh_e.html but he suggests those hadith as weak which consider "Jihad of the heart/soul" to be more important than "Jihad by the sword". Jihad in the Hadith, Peace with Realism, April 16, 2006

    Muslim scholars explained there are five kinds of jihad fi sabilillah (struggle in the cause of God):{{cite web | title = Jihad | work = [Encarta | publisher = [Microsoft | date = 2006 | url = http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761582255/Jihad.html | format = HTML | accessdate = 2006-08-16 -->



    Some contemporary Islamists have succeeded in replacing the greater jihad, the fight against desires, with the lesser jihad, the holy war to establish, defend and extend the Islamic state. Understanding Jihad, February, 2005

    Shi'a view of Jihad Shi'a Islam classify Jihad into two; the Greater Jihad and the Lesser Jihad.http://www.al-islam.org/al-serat/jihad-nasr.htm The Lesser Jihad refers to defending oneself, one's family and community against oppression and tyranny, upon which there are strict regulations.http://www.al-shia.com/html/eng/books/jihad/3.htm The Greater Jihad refers to the struggle inside oneself to obey God (Arabic: Allah) and reject sin.http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/greater_jihad.htm The Greater Jihad, or the struggle to follow God (Allah) and reject sin, is one of the Twelver (Arabic: Ithna 'Ashariyya) Shia Practices of the Religion.

    Sufic view of Jihad The Sufic view classifies "Jihad" into two; the "Greater Jihad" and the "Lesser Jihad". It is Muhammad who put the emphasis on the "greater Jihad" by saying that "Holy is the warrior who wrestles ("struggles") with himself". Here Muhammad was inferring Jacob's "wrestling" with the angel by which he gained the name "Israel". In this sense external wars and strife are seen but a satanic counterfeit of the true "jihad" which can only be fought and won within; no other Salvation existing can save man without the efforts of the man himself being added to the work involved of self-refinement. In this sense it is the western view of the Holy Grail which comes closest to the Sufic ideal; for to the Sufis Perfection is the Grail; and the Holy Grail is for those who after they become perfect by giving all they have to the poor then go on to become "Abdal" or "changed ones" like Enoch who was "taken" by God because he "walked with God". (Genesis:5:24) here the "Holy Ones" gain the surname "Hadrat" or "The Presence".

    ==Jihad as warfare==The Qur’an asserts that if the use of force would not have been allowed in curbing the evils by nations, the disruption and disorder caused by insurgent nations could have reached the extent that the places of worship would have become deserted and forsaken. As it states:] divides just warfare into two types:
  • Against injustice and oppression
  • Against the rejecters of truth after it has become evident to them


    • The first type of Jihad is generally considered eternal, but Ghamidi holds that the second is specific to people who were selected by God for delivering the truth as an obligation. They are called witnesses of the truth (Arabic:, see also Itmam al-hujjah); the implication being that they bear witness to the truth before other people in such a complete and ultimate manner that no one is left with an excuse to deny the truth. There is a dispute among Islamic jurists as to whether the act of being "witness" was only for the Sahaba of Muhammad or whether this responsibility is still being held by modern Muslims, which may entitle them to take actions to subdue other Non-Muslim nations. Proponents of Sahaba of Muhammad as being "the witness" translate the following verse only for the Sahaba while others translate it for the whole Ummah.Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, The Meaning of the Qur'an (tafsir), commentary on verse 2:143. As in Qur'an:] of Muhammad as being "the witness" present following verse to argue that Sahaba of Muhammad were chosen people as witnesses just as God chooses Messengers from mankind. As in Qur'an:||-->

    Following is the first verse of the Qur’an in which the Sahaba of Muhammad, who had migrated from Mecca were given permission to fight back if they were attacked:] instead of Mecca considered by most Muslim scholars is that without political authority armed offensives become tantamount to spreading disorder and anarchy in the society. As one of Islamic jurist writes:

    Directive of warfare The directive of the Jihad given to Muslims in Qur'an is:

    These verses told Muslims that they should not merely fight the Banu Quraish if they resist them in offering Hajj, but the Qur’an goes on to say that they should continue to fight the Banu Quraish until the persecution perpetrated by them is uprooted and Islam prevails in the whole of Arabia. Initially Muslims were required to fulfill this responsibility even if the enemy was ten times their might. Afterwards, the Qur'an reduced the burden of this responsibility. As in Qur'an:]. Tafhim al-Qur'an. Verse 8:66

    A policy was adopted regarding the extent of requirement that arose in wars that the Muslims had to fight. In the battles of Badr, Uhud and Tabuk, the responsibility was much more and each Muslim was required to present his services as a combatant. As in Qur'an:], Tadabbur-i-Qur'an, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Lahore: Faran Foundation, 1986), pp. 450-1 As in Qur'an:||-->

    The driving force Islamic scholars agree that Jihad should not be undertaken to gratify one’s whims nor to obtain wealth and riches. Many also consider that it must also not be undertaken to conquer territories and rule them or to acquire fame or to appease the emotions of communal support, partisanship and animosity. On the contrary, it should be undertaken only and only for the cause of Allah as is evident from the words. As in Qur'an:||-->Prophet Muhammad, at various instances, also explained very forcefully this purport of the Qur’an:

    Similarly as a reward for participation in such a strive, the Qur'an states:||-->

    Ethical limits Sharia, based upon the Quran and practices of Muhammad has set down a set of laws to be observed during the lesser Jihad.

    Qur'an forbids fighting in sacred month and similarly within the boundaries of Haram. But if non-Muslims disregard these sanctities, Muslims are asked to retaliate in equal measure.Amin Ahsan Islahi, Tadabbur-i-Qur'an, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Lahore: Faran Foundation, 1986), pp. 479-80 It is stated in Qur'an:], and they couldn't migrate to Medina, the Qur'an stated:||-->

    Similar reports are attributed to Muhammad:

    Objectives of warfare According to verses , the Qur'an implies two objectives:
  • Uproot fitnah () or persecution
  • Establish supremacy of Islam in the world


    • Against persecution Directives for action against persecution and unbelief:|-->

    Also:||-->

    Most Muslim scholars consider it an eternal directive and believe that all types of oppression should be considered under this directive.Concept of Dar Al-Islam and Dar Al-Harb, Islamonline.net. Similarly, if a group of Muslims commit unwarranted aggression against some of their brothers and does not desist from it even after all attempts of reconciliation, such a group according to the Qur’an should be fought with:||-->

    If Muslims do not have a state, then in such a situation, Muhammad while answering a question raised by one of his followers, directed Muslims to dissociate themselves from such anarchy and disorder: I asked: If there is no state or ruler of the Muslims? He replied: In this situation, dissociate yourself from all groups, even if you have to chew the roots of a tree at the time of your death. Sahih Bukhari 7084

    Supremacy of Islam in the Arabian peninsula It is stated in Qur'an:||-->

    After Itmam al-hujjah (clarification of religion to the addressees in its ultimate form), Jews were the ones who were subdued first. They had been granted amnesty because of various pacts. Those among them who violated these pacts were given the punishment of denying a Messenger of God. Muhammad exiled the tribe of Banu Qaynuqa to Khyber and that of Banu Nadir to Syria.Ibn Hisham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru’l-Khayr, 1995), pp. 40-2 / Ibid. vol. 3, pp. 151-160 The power they wielded at Khyber was crushed by an attack at their strongholds.Ibid., pp. 40-2 / Ibid., pp. 151-160 Prior to this, Abu al-Rafi ibn Abu al-Huqayq and Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf were put to death in their houses.Ibid., pp. 43-8 / Ibn Sa‘ad, al-Tabaqatu’l-Kubra, vol. 2, (Beirut: Dar Sadir, 1960), p. 28 The tribe of Banu Qurayza was guilty of treachery and disloyalty in the battle of the Ahzab.Ibn Hisham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru’l-Khayr, 1995), pp. 180-2 When the clouds of war dispersed and the chances of an external attack no longer remained, Muhammad laid siege around them. When no hope remained, they asked Muhammad to appoint Sa'd ibn Mua'dh as an arbitrator to decide their fate. Their request was accepted. Since, at that time, no specific punishment had been revealed in the Qur’an about the fate of the Jews, Sa'd ibn Mua'dh announced his verdict in accordance with the Torah. As per the Torah, the punishment in such situations was that all men should be put to death; the women and children should be made slaves and the wealth of the whole nation should be distributed among the conquerors.Deuteronomy, 20:10-14Caesar E. Farah. Islam: Beliefs and Observances, pp.52 In accordance with this verdict pronounced, all men were executed.Ibn Hisham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru’l-Khayr, 1995), pp. 188-9 John Esposito writes that Muhammad's use of warfare in general was alien neither to Arab custom nor to that of the Hebrew prophets, as both believed that God had sanctioned battle with the enemies of the Lord.John Esposito(2005), Islam: The Straight Path, p.15

    No other incident of note took place regarding the Jews until the revelation of At-Tawba, the final judgement, was declared against them:], 2730Abu Yusuf, Kitab al-kharaj, Fasl fi’l-Fay wa al-Khiraj, (1302 AH), p. 42Ahmad Ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri, Futuhu’l-Buldan, (Qumm: Manshurat al-Arummiyyah, 1404 AH), p. 73Ibn Athir, Al-Kamil fi’l-Tarikh, 1st ed., vol. 2, (Beirut: Dar Beirut, 1965), p. 112 Consequently, the Jews of Khyber and the Christians of Najran were exiled once and for all from the Arabian peninsula by Umar. This exile actually fulfilled the following declaration of the Qur’an about them:] that in future no pact would be made with them. They would be given a final respite of four months and then they would be humiliated in retribution of their deeds and would in no way be able to escape from this punishment. After this time limit, the declaration is made in the Qur’an:||-->

    After the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, Muhammad himself singled out nations by writing letters to them. In all, they were written to the heads of eight countries.The names of these heads of state are: 1. Negus of Abyssinia, 2. Maqawqas of Egypt, 3. Khusro Parvez of Persia, 4. Qaysar of Rome, 5. Mundhar Ibn Sawi of Bahrain, 6. Hudhah Ibn ‘Ali of Yamamah, 7. Harith Ibn Abi Shamr of Damascus, 8. Jayfar of Amman, see Muhammad as a diplomat Consequently, after consolidating their rule in the Arabian peninsula, the Sahaba launched attacks against these countries giving them two options if they wanted to remain alive: to accept Islam or to accept a life of dhimmi by paying Jizya. None of these nations were considered to be adherents to polytheism, otherwise they would have been treated in the same way as the Idolaters of Arabia..

    Warfare in Muslim societies History records instances of the "call for jihad" being invoked by Islamic leaders to 'legitimate' wars of conquest. The major imperial Muslim dynasties of Ottoman Turkey (Sunni) and Persia (Shia) each established systems of authority around traditional Islamic institutions. Part of this incorporation involved various interpretations of jihad. For example, in the Ottoman empire the concept of ghaza was promulgated as a sister obligation to jihad. The Ottoman ruler Mehmed II is said to have insisted on the conquest of Constantinople (Christian Byzantium) by justifying ghaza as a basic duty. Later Ottoman rulers would apply ghaza to justify military campaigns against the Persian Safavid dynasty. Thus both rival empires established a tradition that a ruler was only considered truly in charge when his armies has been sent into the field in the name of the true faith, usually against giaurs or heretics -often meaning each other-, often invoking some Sufi or other theological dispute, but rather driven by the universal craving for power, prestige, and if possible booty or territory.. The 'missionary' vocation of the Muslim dynasties was prestigious enough to be officially reflected in a formal title as part of a full ruler style- the Ottoman (many also had Ghazi as part of their name) Sultan Murad Khan II Khoja-Ghazi, 6th Sovereign of the House of Osman (1421 - 1451), literally used Sultan ul-Mujahidin.

    The so-called Fulbe jihad states and a few other jihad states in western Africa were established by a series of offensive wars.

    The commands inculcated in the Quran (in five suras from the period after Muhammad had established his power) on Muslims to put to the sword those who will neither embrace Islam nor pay a poll-tax (Jizya) were not interpreted as a general injunction on all Muslims constantly to make war on the infidels (originally only polytheists who claimed to be monotheists, not "People of the Book", Jesus is seen as the last of the precursors of the Prophet Muhammed; the word infidel had different historical uses, notably used by the Crusaders to refer to the Muslims they were fighting against). It was generally supposed that the order for a general war can only be given by the Caliph (an office that was claimed by the Ottoman sultans), but Muslims who did not acknowledge the spiritual authority of the Caliphate (which is vacant), such as non-Sunnis and non-Ottoman Muslim states, always looked to their own rulers for the proclamation of a jihad; there has been in fact no universal warfare by Muslims on non-believers since the early caliphate. Some proclaimed Jihad by claiming themselves as mahdi, e.g. the Sudanese Mahommed Ahmad in 1882.

    Non-Muslim opinions Barbary Pirates The Barbary Pirates is what Europe and the United States called the 18th century JihadAndrew C. Hess. The Evolution of the Ottoman Seaborne Empire in the Age of the Oceanic Discoveries, 1453-1525. The American Historical Review, Vol. 75, No. 7 (Dec., 1970), pp. 1892-1919 H. W. Crocker III, Lepanto, 1571: The Battle That Saved Europe. Crisis Magazine. http://www.crisismagazine.com/december2006/croker.htmby Ottoman corsairs, an Islamic group that attacked as far north in Europe as Iceland.

    Modern Views The United States United States Department of Justice has used its own ad hoc definitions of jihad in indictments of individuals involved in terrorist activities:

    Karen Armstrong in her book Muhammad: a Biography of the Prophet (book), writes:

    "Fighting and warfare might sometimes be necessary, but it was only a minor part of the whole jihad or struggle."{{cite web |url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/isl_jihad.htm |title= The Concept of Jihad "Struggle" in Islam |accessmonthday= August 16 |accessyear=2006 |author= B.A. Robinson |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= 2003-03-28 |format= HTML |publisher= Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance |archiveurl= |archivedate=-->

    The Orientalist, Maxime Rodinson, wrote that "Jihad is a propagandistic device which, as need be, resorts to armed struggle – two ingredients common to many ideological movements." (Maxime Rodinson. Muhammad. Random House, Inc., New York, 2002. p. 351.)

    The neologism jihadist is sometimes used to describe militant Islamic groups, including but not restricted to Jihadist terrorism. The term is deemed offensive by many Muslims who see it as vilifying the more complex ideology of jihad.

    References See also

    Political and military aspects

    Similar concepts in other religions and in secularism

    Philosophers of Jihad doctrine

    Further reading

    Sources and external links Encyclopedic and various non-specialized sites

    Islamic sites discussing Jihad

    Non Islamic sites discussing Jihad



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